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Alternatively, you may be able to renegotiate your current rent if you are able to show your landlord that you have been successful in increasing sales and revenue. Budgeting for equipment can be difficult as it’s often hard to predict exactly how much equipment you’ll need. However, there are a few ways to save money on equipment for startup businesses. One option is to lease or rent equipment instead of buying it outright. Another option is to buy used or refurbished equipment instead of new.
Therefore, the average cost for the production of 1500 chocolate bars is $2.33. This demonstrates average cost decreasing as the fixed costs are spread bookkeeping for startups between more output. Variable costs are important because they provide a way to track the relationship between production volume and expenses.
The next step is to estimate the amount of his own time to be dedicated to the project and that of any other co-investigators. He follows the guide to estimating staff time to help him do this. He works out that his average working week equates to roughly 40 hours per week. This excludes travel to/from work and a daily 45min break for lunch. The value of units transferred to Process 2 is a balancing figure. Abnormal gain example
There is a heat wave and staff have eaten less chocolate.
Since the total fixed cost is fixed, the more you produce, the average fixed cost per unit will decrease further. This is the reason why we have a falling average fixed cost curve. The surprising aspect is the average total cost, which is first decreasing and then increasing as the quantity rises. It is important to distinguish between the total cost and the average total cost since the former always increases with additional quantity.
Estimates are critical to project professionals; vital when making informed decisions about projects across the different stages of the entire project life cycle to ensure successful project delivery. Cost control information is fundamental to the lessons learned process, as it can provide a database of actual costs against activities and work packages that be used to inform future projects. Cost planning and control is the estimation of costs, the setting of an agreed budget, and management of actual and forecast costs against that budget.
The relationship between the average total cost curve and marginal cost curve is illustrated in Figure 2 below. It is generally used in manufacturing businesses, where it helps to track actual production costs and compare them to the costs that were originally expected. It’s called variance analysis, the difference between standard and actual numbers. If a company wants to reduce costs, it can use cost accounting data to identify areas where spending can be reduced. Or, if a company wants to increase profits, it might use cost accounting data to find ways to increase revenue or decrease costs. Managers use cost accounting to make decisions about pricing, product mix, and investment strategies.
In rational decision-making, sunk costs should not play a role in our future actions because we can never get back the money, time, or energy we have invested – regardless of the outcome. The sunk cost fallacy leads people to believe that past investments (i.e., sunk costs) justify further investments and commitments. They believe this because the resources already invested will be lost. The sunk cost fallacy occurs when we feel that we have invested too much to quit. This psychological trap causes us to stick with a plan even if it no longer serves us and the costs clearly outweigh the benefits.
(kɒstɪŋ , US kɔːst- ) Word forms: plural costings. variable noun. A costing is an estimate of all the costs involved in a project or a business venture.
Cost planning is an essential part of the project management process. Project managers need to understand where costs fall in their schedule to manage demand for resources. Cost-plus pricing, also known as markup pricing, simply comprises adding a fixed percentage to the cost of making a product to arrive at its final selling price. This percentage is added on top of whatever price you would need to break even on a single unit or product.
Many larger, more established firms will even have hired cost analysts who monitor and analyse the business’ fixed and variable costs. While fixed costs cover regular payments such as rent or mortgage payments, utilities, salaries, and insurance, you can expect variable costs to cover changeable payments. These include things like the price of raw materials, shipping costs, piece rate labour, and commissions. Similarly, at a quantity level of 10, we can observe that despite the average fixed cost ($5.4) being minimized, the variable cost ($14) has increased as a result of diminishing returns. This results in a higher average total cost($19.4), which shows that the efficient production quantity is lower than 10. Thus, if we add the average fixed cost and average variable cost, we should find the average total cost.
This means that on average, it costs the company $10 to produce each widget. For questions that include WIP, we need to calculate equivalent units. In an exam, use the first in first out (FIFO) method if the percentage completion of each element of opening WIP is given. Use the weighted average (WA) method if the value of each element of opening WIP is given.
The APM Learning portal is an online resource which provides members with access to digital guides, modules and other digital learning resources as part of the membership benefit. The maximum payment period on purchases is 54 calendar days and is obtained only if you spend on the first day of the new statement period and repay the balance in full on the due date. If you’d prefer a Card with no annual fee, rewards or other features, an alternative option is available – the Business Basic Card. Here the focus is to use your competitors’ prices as a benchmark for setting your own. For example, you could set your prices slightly below your competition, the same as your competition or slightly above. If you operate in a saturated market, this strategy can be useful since small price differences can be a deciding factor for customers.
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Lilongwe University of Agriculture & Natural Resources
P.O Box 219
Lilongwe Malawi
mkwapata@bunda.luanar.mw
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The Ethanol Driven Vehicle Project (EDVP) was initiated in 2006 after a cabinet directive in 2004 that Malawi should explore other sources of fuel for vehicles with the overall objective of contributing to economic development by promoting use of ethanol as an alternative energy source in vehicles. The project was first implemented by the then Department of Science and Technology under the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology and from July 2010 the project was taken over by the National Commission for Science and Technology (NCST). The project was implemented in collaboration with Lilongwe Technical College, Ethanol Company Limited, Malawi Energy Regulatory Authority, Plant and Vehicle Hire Organisation and Malawi Bureau of Standards. PVHO donated an old Mitsubishi Pajero to the project; ETHCO imported a flexi vehicle (Ford Ecosport) and the project bought three Nissan Tiidas.
By promoting use of ethanol as an alternative energy source in motor vehicles in Malawi, the research findings were aimed at contributing to energy self-sufficiency, national economic development and environmental protection. The use of locally produced ethanol could replace a certain proportion of petrol imported resulting in savings in foreign exchange and reduce the reliance on imported petroleum fuel. Ethanol produced from sugarcane molasses is classified as a renewable form of energy. The use of ethanol reduces emissions of greenhouse gases, carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter and ethanol is generally less toxic to handle than petroleum fuels.
Ethanol use as vehicle fuel as compared to petrol use is seen to have a net positive benefit/ cost impact on the economy of the 
country. Ethanol use positively contribute to fuel price stability, reduce vehicle running costs, reduce foreign exchange requirements, help address challenges faced by the country due to reliance on imported fuels, growth of agriculture sector and poverty alleviation. Ethanol use negatively contributes to levies collected by Government and does not affect the cost of servicing petrol vehicles, transport costs and storage infrastructure. Ethanol use would therefore contribute to the overall economic development of the country through generation of employment, growth to the agriculture sector, saving of foreign exchange and reducing the reliance of imported petroleum fuels amongst others.
Total ethanol production for the country is 18 million litres per year.This quantity meetsthe current demand of ethanol use as vehicle fuel at a blending ratio of 10% ethanol and 90% petrol. This quantity is however inadequate to meet future ethanol requirements due to increased blending of ethanol with petrol, increased vehicle population and use flexi vehicles.
Existing structures that are used for storage, handling, transporting and marketing of petroleum products (petrol and diesel fuels) and petrol/ ethanol blends are capable of being used for storage, handling, transporting and marketing of increased ethanol/ petrol blends and pure ethanol
The National Commission for Science and Technology in conjunction with International Service for the Acquisition of Agribiotech Applications (ISAAA) and the Programme for Biosafety Systems (PBS) organized a journalists’ sensitization workshop which took place at the Livingstonia Beach Hotel in Salima on 20th and 21st November.
The workshop brought along 13 journalists from the main media houses of Malawi and it had the following objectives;
Practical Session: DNA extraction to understand how genetic engineering ensues
Facilitators in the workshop were scientists and researchers drawn from the Department of Agriculture Research Services, Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, the institution that is carrying out the Confined Field Trials for Bt Cotton and communication experts including Dr Margaret Karembu from ISAAA. Among the facilitators also was the Chairperson of the Cotton Development Trust who is also one of the farmers to have gone to Burkina Faso to witness the benefits of growing Bt Cotton there.
In his speech opening the workshop, the Director General of NCST Mr. Anthony Muyepa Phiri stressed on the importance and timeliness of this workshop saying there has been a lot of misinformation and fear mongering on GM crops and he believed this has been due to the lack of correct information on the part of the media and he said he was sure that at the end of those two days the right information will be inculcated to the media and that the issues of misreporting this technology will be a thing of the past.
The workshop approach was participatory and interactive with presentations, group works, practical sessions and the participants also had chance to conduct a DNA extraction so as to understand how genetic engineering ensues. The practical sessions allowed the participants to develop stories and by the end of the meeting the groups had frameworks of feasible stories.
The presentations were in three categories namely Biotechnology, biosafety and effective biotechnology and biosafety communication.
Participatory and interactive group works
It is hoped that having done this sensitization workshop, the misinformation that has been common place when reporting issues to do with biotech crops will no longer be an issue.
The NCST has been implementing the Programme for Biosafety Systems (PBS). This is a programme that is promoting the adoption and use of biotechnology.
To enhance Malawi’s future development and economic growth, the National Commission for Science and Technology is promoting biotechnology as one of the tools to address poverty, hunger and disease.
To guide development and use of modern biotechnology in the country, NCST has facilitated development of the necessary legal and policy instruments such as Biotechnology and Biosafety Policy, Genetically Modified Seed Import Procedure Manual, Trials Managers Manual, Inspectors Manual and Malawi Guidelines on Biotechnology.
In line with the policy, Government approved the first application for Bt-cotton Confined Field Trial at Bunda College of Agriculture in October 2011, making Malawi among the very few countries in Africa and the world to conduct Confined Field Trials.
The government of Malawi signed the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety in May 2000 and ratified it in 2009.
In line with the requirements of the Protocol, the Malawian Parliament enacted the Biosafety Act in October
2002, which is administered by the Minister responsible for Environmental Affairs. The Act provides for an
institutional framework for its operationalization consisting of the following;
National Biosafety Regulatory Committee
Reviewers
Inspectors
Biosafety Registrar
A national biotechnology and biosafety policy was approved by the Malawi Cabinet on 26th June 2008.
Among provisions in the Malawi biotechnology and biosafety policy is the delineation of roles and
responsibilities at government level as well as at the R&D and other service delivery institutional levels. In
the policy, the mandate for promoting and developing biotechnology in Malawi is vested in the National
Commission for Science and Technology (NCST). The NCST hosts the National Biotechnology Committee,
which is responsible for promoting biotechnology, public awareness and coordination of biotechnology
research and development. On the other hand, the Department of Environmental Affairs (EAD) is
responsible for regulation of biotechnology, which entails receiving and reviewing applications for
activities with genetically modified organisms and issuing licenses or permits. The EAD hosts the National
Biosafety Regulatory Committee (NBRC). In addition, there is a third set of public institutions that are
responsible for providing biosafety regulatory and enforcement services in the country. The mandate of
these institutions is provided through regulatory provisions included in the various Acts that established
them. These include: the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security; Ministry of Industry and Trade;
Ministry of Health; Malawi Bureau of Standards; Pharmacy and Medicines Board; Pesticides Control Board;
Seed Services Unit; Plant Protection Unit; Ministry of Labour; Fisheries Department; Forestry Department;
National Herbarium and Botanic Gardens of Malawi; Department of National Parks and Wildlife; Ministry of
Local Government; Ministry of Women and Child Welfare; and Malawi Investment Promotion Agency.
The Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security has also established its institutional biosafety committee
(IBC) known as the Agricultural Biotechnology and Biosafety Committee (ABBC) which is technically
and financially supported by the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security.
Commencement of Insect-Resistant Cotton CFT in Malawi
In 2009, Bunda College of Agriculture of the University of Malawi through Professor Moses Kwapata
submitted applications for confined field trials of insect resistant and herbicide tolerant cotton. The two
applications for confined field trials (CFTs) for cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) with the events MON88913
(herbicide tolerant) and MON15985 (insect resistant) were submitted according to the provisions of the
Malawi Biosafety Act #13 of 2002 and Biosafety Regulations, 2007, and the Malawi Biotechnology
Guidelines, 2009; to the National Biosafety Regulatory Committee (NBRC) through the Biosafety Registrar.
In January 4, 2013, Malawi commenced CFT for cotton at Bunda College.
Identified Biosafety Needs and Gaps:
Areas that require ABNE intervention are:
Support to the NBRC in biosafety communication using the ABNE Biosafety Communication Manual.
Training of members of the Agricultural Biotechnology and Biosafety Committee (ABBC) as an agricultural technical group of experts to serve as a team of scientific safety reviewers and strengthen their capacity in risk assessments
Training of the Biosafety Registrar, institutional biosafety committee members and members of the NBRC for their roles and responsibilities as biosafety regulators
Training of inspectors for monitoring and compliance
Facilitating attendance of the Biosafety Registrar and members of the NBRC in a functional biosafety committee meeting of another country.
